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Jehovah's Witnesses

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Jehovah's Witnesses

Watchtower Buildings in Brooklyn, New York
Classification Restorationist
Orientation Christian
Polity Hierarchical
Geographical Area Worldwide
Official Website http://www.watchtower.org
Development
Founder Charles Taze Russell (founded Bible Student movement)
Origin 1876: Bible Students founded
1931: Adopted name
Pennsylvania and New York, USA
Branched from Millerite and Adventist movements
Separations See Jehovah's Witnesses
splinter groups
Statistics
Congregations 101,376
Members 7.0 million
Statistics from 2008 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses is a restorationist[1], millenialist[2] Christian religious movement.[3][4] Sociologists of religion have classified them as an Adventist sect.[5][6] The religion emerged from the Bible Student Movement, founded in the late 19th century by Charles Taze Russell. It underwent significant changes between 1917 and the 1940s as its authority structure was centralized and its preaching methods brought under greater regimentation.[7][8] The religion today claims an active worldwide membership of 7.0 million.[9]

They are most well-known for their door-to-door preaching ministry, and their refusal to serve in the military and take blood transfusions.[10] Since 1876, adherents have believed that they are living in the last days of the present world.[11] In the years leading up to 1925 and 1975, the religion's publications expressed strong expectations that Armageddon would occur in those years, both times resulting in surges in membership and subsequent defections.[7]

The religion has been acknowledged for its contributions to medical practice in bloodless surgery, its assistance in the development of constitutional law concerning civil liberties and conscientious objection to military service, and its international publishing and missionary activity.[12] The religion's stance against all forms of military service, including non-combatant duty, has brought it into conflict with governments that conscript citizens for military service[13][14], and activities of Jehovah's Witnesses have subsequently been banned in some countries.

The organization's teachings and practices diverge greatly from traditional Christian theology, which has caused several major Christian denominations to denounce the group as either a cult or heretical sect.[15] The group has been criticized as authoritarian[16] and accused of coercing members to obey doctrines including the ban on blood transfusions.[17] The religion is said to demand unquestioning obedience from members, with the consequence of expulsion and shunning facing any who fail to comply with, express doubts about, or disagree with its doctrines.[18][19]

Contents

[edit] History

See main article: History of Jehovah's Witnesses
See also: Development of Jehovah's Witnesses doctrine
Charles Taze Russell (1852–1916)

[edit] 1879-1916: Charles Taze Russell and the Bible Students

In July 1879, Charles Taze Russell, who had earlier studied the Bible with the Millerist Adventist group and jointly edited a religious journal, Herald of the Morning,[20] began leading a Bible study group and publishing a magazine, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence,[21][22] highlighting Biblical time prophecies and Russell's belief that the world was in "the last days".[23] In 1881 Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was formed in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,[24] to disseminate tracts, papers, doctrinal treatises and Bibles and three years later, on December 15, 1884, Russell became the president of the society when it was legally incorporated in Pennsylvania.[25]

Watch Tower supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible and Russell's writings. Russell firmly rejected as "wholly unnecessary" the concept of a formal organization for his followers and declared his group had no record of its members' names, no creeds and no sectarian name.[26] The group became known as "Bible Students".[26] Russell died in 1916 and was succeeded by Joseph Franklin Rutherford (also known as "Judge" Rutherford).

[edit] 1916-1942: Joseph Rutherford

[edit] Organizational changes

A power struggle developed between Rutherford and the Society's Board of Directors, who objected to his dogmatic, authoritarian style of leadership.[27][28] On July 17, 1917 Rutherford dismissed four of the directors[29] and announced the release of The Finished Mystery, a book described as the "posthumous work of Russell", but actually written by two Bible Students.[30] Controversy erupted over Rutherford's actions and many Bible Students left to form splinter groups.[31] Eight years later Rutherford dismissed the Watch Tower's Editorial Committee following a dispute over a proposed article, giving him full control of the organization and material published in the magazine.[28]

The Finished Mystery strongly criticised Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in war.[32] Citing this book, the United States federal government indicted Rutherford and the new board of directors for violation of the Espionage Act on May 7, 1918. They were found guilty and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. However, in March 1919, the judgment against them was reversed and they were released from prison.[33] The charges were later dropped.[34] Patriotic fervor during World War I fueled persecution of the Bible Students both in America and in Europe,[35] including mob violence and tarring and feathering.[27]

Rutherford continued to tighten and centralize organizational control of the Bible Students, with the Brooklyn headquarters appointing a "director" in each congregation in 1919 and a year later requiring all congregation members who participated in the preaching work to report weekly on their witnessing activity.[26] In 1932 Rutherford eliminated the system of congregations electing bodies of elders and in 1938 introduced a "theocratic" or "God-ruled" organizational system in which the Brooklyn headquarters would make all appointments in congregations worldwide.[26] On July 26, 1931, the name Jehovah's Witnesses was adopted by resolution at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, based on the scripture at Isaiah 43:10, "You are my witnesses, is the utterance of Jehovah...".

[edit] Doctrinal changes

At an international convention held at Cedar Point, on September 1922, a new emphasis was made on house-to-house preaching.[36] Significant changes in doctrine were made under Rutherford's leadership, including the 1918 announcement that Jewish patriarchs (such as Abraham and Isaac) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ's thousand-year reign, accompanied by an earthly paradise.[37][38] The failed expectations for 1925 coupled with other doctrinal changes, led to a dramatic reduction in attendance at their yearly Memorial from 90,434 in 1925[39] to 17,380 in 1928.[40][41][42][43] By 1933, the timing of the beginning of Christ's presence (Greek: pa'rou'si'a), his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days", was moved from 1874 to 1914.[44][45] From 1935 converts to the movement were generally identified as those who, if worthy, would survive Armageddon and live on a paradise earth. Membership before this time was generally composed of those who believed they would be resurrected to live in heaven to rule over the earth with Christ. [46]

As the "body of theocratic law" continued to expand at a rapid pace,[47] Witnesses were told they should refuse to salute the flag, stand for the national anthem or accept alternative service provided for those who had conscientous objection to military service. In Germany, Jehovah's Witnesses came under persecution, with as many as 5000 imprisoned in concentration camps.[48][49] Witnesses also experienced mob violence in the US and were banned in Canada and Australia because of their pacifist stance.[50]

See also: Eschatology of Jehovah's Witnesses
See also: Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses in Nazi Germany

[edit] 1942-present: Nathan Knorr, Frederick Franz, Milton Henschel, Don Adams

Nathan Knorr was named the third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society following Rutherford's death in January 1942. Knorr instituted major new training programs, for both missionaries and all congregation members, organized large-scale conventions attracting as many as 253,000 Witnesses to sports stadiums in the US, Canada and Germany[51] and began a campaign of real estate acquisition in Brooklyn to expand the organisation's world headquarters. He commissioned a new translation of the Bible, which was released progressively from 1950 before being published as the complete New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures in 1961. Knorr's vice-president, Frederick William Franz, became the leading theologian for the religion[52] and helped shape the further growth of explicit rules on what conduct was acceptable among members, with a greater emphasis placed on disfellowshipping as a disciplinary measure.[53]

Jehovah's Witnesses are known for their preaching from house to house.

From 1938 to 1955 the Witnesses launched a series of cases in the US Supreme Court to defend their right to worship and proselytize, winning 36 out of 45 cases.[54]

From 1966, Witness publications began using biblical time prophecies to heighten anticipation of Christ's thousand-year millennial reign beginning in late 1975. [55][56][57] Focus on 1975 was intensified with talks given at conventions[58] and in 1974 a Watchtower Society publication commended Witnesses who had sold homes and property to devote themselves to preaching in the "short time" remaining.[59] The number of baptisms soared from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974, but membership declined after expectations for the year were proved wrong.[60] In 1980 the Watchtower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding 1975.[61]

The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments being made from headquarters.[62] In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watchtower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the Governing Body of Jehovah's Witnesses of the Watch Tower Society. After Knorr's death in 1977, the presidents have been Frederick Franz (1977-1992), Milton Henschel (1992-2000) and Don A. Adams (2000-).[63]

See also: Supreme Court cases involving Jehovah's Witnesses

[edit] Organization

See main article: Organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses have no formal clergy-laity division. All baptized members are considered to be ordained ministers and share in proselytizing efforts. A body of Elders supervises each congregation, in accord with guidance and instructions provided by the Governing Body.[64]

[edit] Beliefs

Main article: Beliefs and practices of Jehovah's Witnesses

Unless explicitly stated, statements in this section reflect the beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses.

[edit] Jehovah

Also pronounced YAHWEH, the name "Jehovah" is a hybrid rendering of the Biblical Hebrew letters "yod-hey-vov-hey" (YHWH), the Tetragrammaton combined with the vowel sounds of adonai.

Jehovah's Witnesses give emphasis to the use of God's Biblical name, the Tetragrammaton, and in English they prefer to use the name, Jehovah.[65] Jehovah's Witnesses see mankind as participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty.[66]

[edit] Jesus Christ

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus was created by Jehovah[67], and that Jehovah then created everything else by means of Jesus.[68] While on Earth as a human, Jesus performed miracles, but he does not perform them now.[69] Jesus served as a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of mankind.[70] They believe that Jesus died on a single upright torture stake rather than the traditional cross.

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus and the Archangel Michael are the same being.[71][72]

[edit] Salvation

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that salvation from death is necessary because "sin entered into the world and death through sin, thus death spread to all men because they had all sinned" [Romans 5:12]. Everlasting life is possible for those who repent.[73] Their salvation is not experienced as a sudden moment of realization.[74] Publications of Jehovah's Witnesses have stated that only those serving Jehovah have Scriptural hope of surviving God's judgment of the world.[75]

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus' death was necessary to atone for the sin brought into the world by the first man, Adam, opening the way for the hope of everlasting life for mankind, and that 144,000 anointed Christians will receive immortal life in heaven as co-rulers with Christ, ruling over the rest of mankind during the Millennial Reign. They believe that God’s kingdom was established "in heaven with Christ Jesus as King" in 1914.[76] During the war of Armageddon, the wicked will be destroyed[77], while the survivors along with millions of others who will be resurrected will form a new earthly society ruled by a heavenly government, with the possibility of living forever in an earthly paradise.[78]

The vast majority of Jehovah's Witnesses expect to live in a renewed paradise on Earth.[79] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus' first act as King in 1914 was to throw Satan out of heaven. Those of the 144,000 who had already died are believed to have been resurrected as spirit creatures to heavenly life 1918. Since then, any remaining members of the 144,000 who die are believed to be immediately resurrected to heavenly life, based on their understanding of 1 Corinthians 15:51, 52. They also teach that it is up to Jesus, and not people, to judge individuals.[80] The prospect for small children and the mentally ill is unknown. [81][82]

They believe that after Armageddon, the majority of mankind who have died, both righteous and unrighteous but specifically excluding those who die at Armageddon, will eventually be resurrected, with the chance of being judged righteous and living forever in paradise. The resurrected ones have a period of 1000 years to demonstrate obedience. During this period, the 144,000 rule as kings and judges along with Jesus. After the period of 1000 years, Satan and his demons will be given a chance to mislead people again. Then Satan and any who follow him will be destroyed. Thereafter, faithful humans will live forever on earth.[83][84]

[edit] Mortality

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that death is a state of non-existence with no consciousness. They do not believe in any Hell of fiery torment. Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to the condition of death, termed common grave.[85][86][87] They consider the soul and body to be the living being that expires.[88] Their hope for life after death involves being resurrected by God, either with a new or renewed body on earth after Armageddon, or to heaven for the limited number of 144,000.

[edit] Authority of the Bible

Jehovah's Witnesses consider the entire Bible (following the Protestant canon, hence excluding the deuterocanonical books) to be the inspired word of God, historically and mostly literally true.[89]They believe the Bible also uses symbolism, parable, figures of speech, and poeticism.[90] They do not consider themselves to be fundamentalist.[91][92][93]

Because of the intellectual expounding of their interpretation of the Bible, they have been termed a rational religion.[94][95]

Jehovah’s Witness consider their religion the sole visible channel of Jehovah, and that the Bible cannot be understood without the assistance and guidance of what they call Jehovah’s visible organization.[96]

[edit] Ethics and morality

Jehovah's Witnesses meet in buildings called Kingdom Halls, like this one in Germany.

Their view of morality reflects conservative Christian values. All sexual relations outside of marriage are grounds for expulsion (disfellowshipping) if the accused is not deemed repentant.[97] Abortion is considered murder.[98] Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized. Gambling[99], drunkenness, illegal drugs, and tobacco use are forbidden.

The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered the final authority on family decisions, but is encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings, as well as those of his children. Marriages are required to be monogamous.[100] Divorce is condemned for any reason other than adultery. Abuse and willful nonsupport of one's family are considered grounds for separation.

[edit] Avoidance of interfaith activity

Jehovah's Witnesses contend that the Bible has always condemned the mixing of religions on the basis that there can only be one truth from God.[101][102] They believe only their religion represents true Christianity and that all other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will be destroyed.[103] They are opposed to 'councils' that unite or combine different religions.[104]

[edit] Holidays

Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are observed. Religious holidays such as New Year's Day, Easter, Halloween, and Christmas are not celebrated, as Jehovah's Witnesses believe these customs come from ancient "false religions". They also refrain from celebrating birthdays.[105]

[edit] Relationship with governments

Jehovah's Witnesses believe their allegiance belongs to God's Kingdom, which is viewed as an actual government. Thus they refrain from saluting the flag of any country or singing nationalistic songs.[106] They believe that these acts are tantamount to worship. The political neutrality of Jehovah's Witnesses is also expressed by their refusal to participate in military service – even when it is compulsory – and by their detachment from secular politics. However, they believe that they owe the secular authorities their obedience. Members are expected to obey all laws of their native governments, so long as these do not violate their interpretations of scripture.[107][108] They are instructed to pay all taxes of the country in which they reside, considering the government to be solely responsible for how they are used.[109][110]

[edit] Education

Jehovah's Witnesses are instructed to make their preaching work the top priority in their life. Members who pursue tertiary education are instructed to keep their studies secondary to spiritual responsibilities.[111]

Jehovah's Witnesses provide various religious training programs for their members. Some examples are the Theocratic Ministry School (available for everyone), Pioneer Service School, Ministerial Training School, Gilead Missionary School (which was officially recognized by the US Office of Education in 1953[112]) and others, specifically focused on improving skills for their ministry.

[edit] Blood

Main article: Jehovah's Witnesses and blood
Jehovah's Witnesses most often reject transfusions of whole allogeneic blood

Jehovah's Witnesses are opposed to blood transfusions based on their understanding of how the Bible says blood should be treated.[113] In 1961, accepting a blood transfusion became grounds for expulsion from the religion.[114] They do not accept the threat of death as sufficient to dissuade them from rejecting blood transfusions for themselves or their children.[115] Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible prohibits blood transfusions based on their interpretation of Acts 15:28-29:

“For the holy spirit and we ourselves have favored adding no further burden to you, except these necessary things, to keep abstaining from things sacrificed to idols and from blood and from things strangled and from fornication. If you carefully keep yourselves from these things, you will prosper. Good health to you!”

While Jehovah's Witnesses are not permitted to accept red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma, they may accept fractions made from these components at their own discretion.[116] The Watchtower Society provides members with Power of Attorney documents to indicate which optional fractions they accept, with preformatted wording prohibiting major components.[117] If a fraction, "makes up a significant portion of that component" or "carries out the key function of a primary component" it may be objectionable to some but is permissible.[118]

[edit] Practices

[edit] Proselytization

Jehovah's Witnesses are perhaps best known for their efforts to spread their beliefs throughout the world. They do this mainly by visiting people from house to house.[119][120] Free home Bible studies are offered to people who show interest in their beliefs. They use their publications, such as The Watchtower, to explain their beliefs. Literature is published in many languages through a wide variety of books, magazines and other publications, with a small selection available in more than 400 languages. Witnesses are instructed to devote as much time as possible to preaching activities.

They believe that their preaching work is a form of humanitarian effort by helping people apply Biblical principles to improve their lives, and that their preaching work gives people hope for the future.[121][122][123] All who qualify are encouraged to participate in the preaching work, but only active ministers are counted as current members.

[edit] Aid work

Aid work after large natural disasters is considered an important part of their work, though secondary to their preaching effort. Large sums of donated money are used in the affected areas to rebuild communities and provide aid. The focus of relief efforts is primarily on rebuilding Kingdom Halls, and helping fellow members, but assistance is also provided to non-members in need near the area in which they are working.[124][125] Examples of relief work include that provided to Hutu and Tutsi victims during the Rwandan genocide, to Congo refugees,[126] and after Hurricane Katrina in the United States of America.[127]

[edit] The Memorial

Their most important annual event is the commemoration of Jesus' death on behalf of mankind, referred to as the Memorial or the Lord's Evening Meal. It is held after sundown on the day corresponding to the date of the Hebrew Passover (Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar). This is usually in March or April on the first full moon after the spring equinox.[128] The event is open to anyone. Invitations are given out in communities about a month before. Over 17 million attended the Memorial worldwide in 2007.

During the event, unleavened bread and wine, emblems symbolizing Jesus' perfect body and shed blood, are passed to each person in attendance. Only those members who profess to be of the anointed 144,000 partake of the emblems. They believe that those who partake unworthily of the emblems will be judged by Jehovah.

[edit] Demographics

Average Publishers, 1945–2005
Main article: Demographics of Jehovah's Witnesses

Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, though they do not form a large part of the population of any country. Brazil, Mexico, and the United States are the only countries where the number of active Witness publishers exceeds half a million. As of February 2008, Jehovah's Witnesses have an average of 6.8 million members actively involved in preaching.[129] Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 7.0 million.[130] However, there has been a decline in growth rates, from over 8% per annum in the mid 1970s, to 5% per annum in the mid 1990s, to about 2%–3% per annum since 1999.[131] Growth rates and activity reports tend to show significant geographical variation.[132] The official published membership statistics only include those who have reported preaching activity. 'Inactive' and disfellowshipped members, and any who have either not been involved in preaching or have not submitted reports, are not included in the reported figures but may be reflected in the attendance at the Witnesses' annual Memorial.[133] In the United States where the religion’s world headquarters is located, Jehovah’s Witnesses have a very low retention rate among individuals raised in the religion. About one-third of children among Jehovah’s Witnesses still identify themselves with the religion as adults.[134]

[edit] Main publications used

Main article: List of Jehovah's Witnesses Publications

The publishing arm of Jehovah's Witnesses, known as the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, engages in extensive publication work, with the production of books, brochures, and other media. The most widely spread are:

  • New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures. (1961, revised 1984) A translation of the Bible by the New World Bible Translation Committee. It extensively uses the name Jehovah, an English version of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton, also replacing the Greek word for "Lord" some 237 times in the New Testament. It is available in 72 languages.
  • The Watchtower. A 32-page magazine, published since 1879, for use in the public ministry; published twice per month, on the 1st and a 15th of each month. From 2008 onward, the issue published on the 15th of each month is a Study Edition for use at the Watchtower Study and not used in the public ministry. It is available in 169 languages.
  • Awake!. A 32-page general interest magazine, with a wider scope than the Watchtower, usually including articles on science, nature, and geography, usually with a religious slant. Earlier titles for this magazine were The Golden Age (1919–1937) and Consolation (1937–1946). Until 2005, Awake! was published on the 8th and 22nd of each month; from 2006 onwards, one issue is published each month. It is available in 81 languages.

[edit] Criticism and controversy

Jehovah's Witnesses have attracted controversy over issues that include: their Bible translation,[136] unfulfilled predictions and changes in doctrine;[137] claims of prophecy and divine revelation;[138][139] their views on blood transfusion,[140] treatment of "apostates",[141] sexual abuse,[142] and their treatment of expelled members.

The religion has also been criticised for displaying a dogmatic and authoritarian form of leadership,[26] reinforced with a disciplinary system that encourages informers[143][144] and includes the sanctions of the disfellowshipping and possible lifetime shunning of members.[143] Critics claim its use of "theocratic law"[145] places coercive pressure on members to submit to doctrines without question.[146]

[edit] Authoritarian control

There are claims that the Watchtower Society's emphasis of the term "theocratic organization" – used particularly since 1939 to describe the religion's authority structure, which places God at the apex of its organization – is designed to exercise control over every aspect of the lives of Jehovah's Witnesses[147] and condition them to think it is wrong for them to question statements by the Watchtower Society.[26] Witnesses are encouraged to feel dependent on "the organization", are discouraged from engaging in independent Bible study[148] and are told they are incapable of understanding the scriptures without its involvement.[149] Rejection of Watchtower teachings is equated with "rejection of divine rulership", and therefore of God.[150] The organization's power to "dominate" its members is gained by "the acceptance of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society quite literally as the voice of Jehovah – God's 'mouthpiece'."[148] The Watchtower Society's firm discouragement of members to read criticism of the organization[151][152] or scriptural material published by other religions,[153][154] is claimed to create a form of mental isolation that has been cited as an element of mind control.[155]

[edit] Coercion

Constant urging to devote increasing amounts of time to door-to-door preaching has been described as coercive pressure. Many Witnesses are said to constantly feel guilty that they are not doing more in "field activity".[156] Since 1920 the Watchtower Society has required all congregation members to turn in written reports of the amount of their preaching activity[157] and although personal quotas – imposed in 1943 – were later removed, critics claim "invisible" quotas remain, obliging Witnesses to meet certain levels of preaching work to remain in good standing in the congregation[158] or to qualify for eldership.[156] Medical and legal commentators have also noted cases of Witness medical patients being coerced to obey the religion's ban on blood transfusions.[16][159]

[edit] Conformity

The religion's Governing Body has been accused of seeking to silence differences of viewpoint within the organization [26] and demanding organizational conformity that overrides personal conscience.[156][160] A senior Watchtower Society figure has testified that Jehovah's Witnesses requires "unity at all costs"[161] and Watchtower literature strongly emphasises the importance of avoiding the "dangers" and "infection" of "independent thinking", such as "questioning the counsel that is provided by God's visible organization".[162][163]

Watchtower publications are studied at meetings with "catechistical" question-and-answer sessions in which both questions and answers are provided by the organization, placing pressure on Witnesses to repeat the thinking of the headquarters organization.[155][148] Witnesses who do voice dissenting viewpoints are said to be viewed with suspicion.[158][156]

The Society has denied suggestions it is "harshly dogmatic", [164] but one study of the Society's teaching methods concluded: "Any suggestion that the society encourages genuine open debate, or even discussion ... must be rejected. Jehovah's Witnesses will brook no criticism from within, as many concerned members who have attempted to voice alternative opinions regarding the basic doctrine or application of social pressure have discovered to their chagrin."[148]

See main article: Controversies regarding Jehovah's Witnesses

[edit] References

  1. ^ Stark et al, Why Jehovah's Witnesses Grow So Rapidly: A Theoretical Application, Journal of Contemporary Religion, Vol. 12, Num. 2, 1997: 133–157
  2. ^ OED definition of "Jehovah's Witness": "a member of a fundamentalist millenary sect..." (emphasis added)
  3. ^ BBC "Jehovah’s Witness at a glance", BBC - Religion & Ethics (bbc.co.uk) Accessed Nov 16, 2008.
  4. ^ "Religious affiliation and psychiatric diagnosis: The influence of Christian sect membership on diagnosis distribution", (Journal : European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, Publisher: Steinkopff, ISSN 0940-1334 (Print), 1433-8491 (Online), Volume 243, Number 1 / July, 1993. DOI: 10.1007/BF02191523.)
  5. ^ Joel Elliott. "Jehovah's Witnesses", Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Hartford Institute for Religion Research, Harftord Seminary (hirr.hartsem.edu) Accessed Nov 16, 2008.
  6. ^ Ronald Lawson. "Sect-State Relations: Accounting for the Differing Trajectories of Seventh-day Adventists and Jehovah's Witnesses", Questia Media America (questia.com). (Journal article by Ronald Lawson; Sociology of Religion, Vol. 56, 1995. 27 pgs.) Accessed Nov 16, 2008.
  7. ^ a b Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press, 60-75. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7. 
  8. ^ A.H. MacMillan, Faith on the March, 1957, as cited by Raymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, Commentary Press, 2007, page 190.|"Rutherford wanted to unify the preaching work and, instead of having each individual give his own opinion ... gradually Rutherford himself began to be the main spokesman for the organization."
  9. ^ Authorized Site of the Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses[1]
  10. ^ Evans, Allan S.; Riley E. Moynes, Larry Martinello (1973). What man Believes: A study of the World’s Great Faiths. McGraw-Hill Ryerson, 424. ISBN 0-07-077440-4. 
  11. ^ M. James Penton, Apocalypse Delayed, University of Toronto Press, 2nd ed, 1997, page 1.
  12. ^ Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press, 7. ISBN 0802079733, 9780802079732. 
  13. ^ "Armenia violates Jehovah's Witnesses' rights-Amnesty", Reuters news agency, January 16, 2008
  14. ^ UNHCR report, May 28, 2008
  15. ^ House, H. Wayne (1992). Charts of Cults, Sects, and Religious Movements. Zondervan. ISBN 978-0310385516. 
  16. ^ a b “Jehovah's Witnesses case heads to B.C. court”, Vancouver Sun, April 1, 2007
  17. ^ Medical emergencies in children of orthodox Jehovah's Witness families: Three recent legal cases, ethical issues and proposals for management”, by J Guicho and, I Mitchell, Paediatrics & Child Health, Canadian Pediatric Society, December 2006.
  18. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Atlanta: Commentary Press, 754. ISBN 0-914675-17-6. 
  19. ^ Botting, Heather; Gary Botting (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7. 
  20. ^ The issues of Herald of the Morning from 1874-1876 are available online at: http://tjliberte.free.fr/Library/Watchtower_Publications/1874-1876_Herald_of_the_Morning.pdf accessed August 23, 2007
  21. ^ Holden, A. (2002) Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. (p.18) Routledge.
  22. ^ Online copies of The Watch Tower from 1879–1916 can be viewed by issue at [2] or by article at [3] or in a PDF at [4]. These are taken from the seven-volume Watch Tower Reprints published by the Watch Tower Society in 1920 which reprinted all the issues from 1879–1919.
  23. ^ Text of Watchtower, July 1, 1879
  24. ^ (1993) Jehovah's Witnesses: Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower, 576. 
  25. ^ Holden, A. (2002) Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. (p.18) Routledge.
  26. ^ a b c d e f g Raymond Franz, "In Search of Christian Freedom", Commentary Press, 2007, chapter 4
  27. ^ a b M James Penton, "Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses", University of Toronto Press, 1997, ISBN 0802079733
  28. ^ a b Raymond Franz, Crisis of Conscience, Commentary Press, 2002, chapter 3.
  29. ^ A.H. MacMillan. Faith on the March (PDF), 80. Retrieved on 2007-10-25. . Rutherford claimed the four directors had not been legally elected, but the ousted directors disagreed: "...if the directors were not legally elected, neither were the Society's three officers: Rutherford, Pierson, and Van Amburgh. In order to have been chosen officers in January 1917, they would have had to have been legally elected directors. Yet, they had not been, and hence, by Rutherford's own logic, did not hold office legally."—Apocalypse Delayed, M. James Penton, p. 52
  30. ^ The Finished Mystery. Watchtower. , published 1917, was called the seventh volume of Studies in the Scriptures. PDF version of The Finished Mystery
  31. ^ "Unrecognized charisma? A study of four charismatic leaders" by George D. Chryssides. Paper presented at the 2001 International Conference "The Spiritual Supermarket: Religious Pluralism in the 21st Century", organized by INFORM and CESNUR (London, April 19-22, 2001.
  32. ^ The Finished Mystery pp. 247–253 468 and 474. See also The Fall of Babylon, published in 1917, which contains extracts from The Finished Mystery.
  33. ^ Trial documents: Rutherford et al. vs. the United States, Application for Executive Clemency – 1919, Reversal by Appeals Court
  34. ^ M.J. Penton. Apocalypse Delayed, 55–56.  (1993) Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower, 647–654.  Rutherford gives his defense against the charges in Souvenir Report of the Bible Student's Convention (1919) (PDF), Watchtower, 62–63.  and in the tract The Case of the IBSA
  35. ^ "Distress of Nations: Cause, Warning, Remedy". The Golden Age: 712–718. September 29 1920, http://www.a2z.org/wtarchive/docs/1920_Golden_Age.pdf. 
  36. ^ (1993) Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower, 72-77. 
  37. ^ Raymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, page 144.
  38. ^ Edmond C. Gross, Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show?, Xulon Press, 2001, ISBN 193123230X, chapter 24.[
  39. ^ (1958) Your Will Be Done on Earth. Watchtower, 337. 
  40. ^ (1959) Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose. Watchtower, 313. 
  41. ^ M. James Penton. Apocalypse Delayed—The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses, 61. 
  42. ^ (1946) When Pastor Russell Died (PDF), Dawn Bible Students Association, 6–16.  Attendance at the annual Memorial (statistics were published each year in the Watch Tower) shows the growth in the period before 1925. 1919: 17,961, 1922: 32,661, 1923: 42,000, 1924: 62,696, 1925: 90,434. 1926 marked the first decrease: 89,278. There are no published statistics from 1929–1934. In 1935, Memorial attendance was 63,146.Watchtower. August 15, 1996. pp. 31. 
  43. ^ Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press, 62. ISBN 0802079733, 9780802079732. 
  44. ^ Raymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, 2007, page 144.
  45. ^