Karma in Jainism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jainism
This article is part of a series on Jainism
Prayers and Vows
Navakar Mantra · Ahimsa ·
Brahmacharya · Satya · Nirvana ·
Asteya · Aparigraha · Anekantavada
Key concepts
Kevala Jñāna · Cosmology · Samsara ·
Karma · Dharma · Mokṣa ·
Gunasthana · Navatattva
Major figures
The 24 Tirthankaras · Rishabha ·
Mahavira · Acharya  · Ganadhar ·
Siddhasen Divakar · Haribhadra
Jainism by region
India · Western
Sects
Svetambara · Digambara · Terapanthi ·
Early schools · Sthanakvasi ·
Bisapantha · Deravasi
Texts
Kalpasutra · Agama ·
Tattvartha Sutra · Sanmatti Prakaran
Other
Timeline · Topics list
Jainism Portal  v • d • e

The term karma is derived from the sanskrit verbal root , which means action. In Jainism, karma is the basis of an overarching psycho-cosmological scheme in which, ones actions cause a person to enter into the world of saṃsāra until one achieves liberation by following a path of purification. On the other hand, in the vedic tradition, it is linked to a sort of ritual actions that produces desired results. ^[1]

Contents 1 Philosophical overview 1.1 Atomic theory 1.2 Self regulating mechanism 1.3 Predominance of Karma 1.4 Reincarnation and transmigration 1.5 Four States of existence 1.6 Lesya – colouring of the soul 2 Origins and Differences with other philosophies 2.1 Origins 2.2 Differences with other philosophies 3 The process of bondage and release 3.1 Influx 3.1.1 Attraction of Karma 3.2 Bondage 3.2.1 Causes of bondage 3.3 Experiencing the effects of the karmas 3.4 How the karmas bear results 3.5 Modifications of karma 3.6 Release from karmas 4 Types of Karmas 4.1 Ghatiya karmas 4.2 Aghatiya karmas 4.3 Duration of Karmas 5 Rationale of karma theory and human inequalities 6 Scientific interpretation of karma 7 Criticism of karma theory 8 References and notes 9 Bibliography 10 Further reading 10.1 Ancient Jain Texts 10.2 Other Reference material

[edit] Philosophical overview

According to the Jains, all souls are intrinsically pure in their natural state, possessing the qualities of infinite knowledge, infinite perception, infinite bliss and infinite energy. ^[2] However, these qualities are defiled and obstructed on account of association of soul with the karmas. The soul is associated with karma since the beginingless time. ^[3] The bondage of the soul is explained by the Jain texts with the analogy of gold ore, which is always found in the impure state in the nature. Similarly, the pure state of the soul has always been found vitiated on account of its association with the karmas. This analogy to gold ore is taken one step further: the purification of the soul is achieved if the proper methods of refining are applied. ^[3] Over the centuries, Jain monks have developed a large and sophisticated corpus of literature describing the various aspects of working of the karmas, the nature of the soul and the ways and means of attaining salvation.

[edit] Atomic theory

In Jainism, karma is referred to as karmic dirt as they are thought to be very subtle and microscopic imperceptible particles pervading the entire universe ^[4]. They are so small that, one space-point – the smallest possible extent of space – contains infinite karmic particles. It is these karmic particles that stick to the soul and affect the natural potency of the soul. ^[5] These material karmas are called dravya karma and the resultant emotions of pleasure, pain, love, hatred, etc. experienced by the soul are called bhava karma (psychic karmas). ^[6] The relationship between the material karmas and psychic karmas is that of cause and effect. The material karmas give rise to the feelings and emotions in the worldly souls, which, in turn, gives rise to psychic karmas causing emotional modifications within the soul. The emotions again results in influx and bondage of fresh material karmas.^[7] Jains hold that the karmic matter is actually an agent that enables the consciousness to act within the material context of this universe. They are thus the material carrier of a souls desire to physically experience this world.^[8]When attracted to the consciousness, they are stored in the interactive karmic field – the karma sarira – attached to the soul. ^[9] Thus the karmas are the subtle matter surrounding the consciousness of a soul. When these two components – consciousness and ripened karma interact, we experience the life as we know it at present.^[8]

[edit] Self regulating mechanism

According to Indologist, Robert J. Zydenbos, Karma in Jainism is a system of natural laws, where actions that carry moral significance are considered to cause certain consequences in the same way as physical actions. When one holds an apple and then lets it go, the apple will fall. There is no judge, and no moral judgment involved, since this is a mechanical consequence of the physical action.^[10] In the same manner, consequences occur naturally when one utters a lie, steals something, commits senseless violence or leads a life of a debauchee. Rather than assume that these consequences—the moral rewards and retributions—are a work of some divine judge, the Jains believe that there is an innate moral order in the cosmos, self-regulating through the workings of the law of karma. Morality and ethics are important in Jainism not because of a god, but because a life that is led in agreement with moral and ethical principles is considered beneficial; it leads to a decrease and finally to the total loss of karma, which in turns leads to ever lasting happiness. .^[11]

[edit] Predominance of Karma

According to Jainism, karmic consequences are unerringly certain and inescapable. No divine grace can save a person from experiencing its consequences. Only practice of complete equanimity and detachment and practice of austerities can modify or alleviate the consequences of the karmas. In some cases there is no option but to accept the karmas with equanimity. The following quote in Bhagavatī Ārādhanā (1616) sums up the predominance of karmas in Jain doctrine: "There is nothing mightier in the world than karma; karma tramples down all powers, as an elephant a clump of lotuses." ^[12] A strong theme of karma, thus, runs through the vast literature produced by the Jain ascetics through the ages. Paul Dundas notes that the ascetics used frightening stories to ram home the full karmic implications of morally incorrect modes of life or excessively intense emotional relationships. However such narratives were often softened by the concluding statements about the protagonists’ eventual attainment of liberation and transforming effect of a pious actions. ^[13] The exploits and biographies of the legendary persons like, Rama and Krsna, in the Jain versions of Ramayana and Mahabharata also have karma as one to the major themes. The major events, characters and circumstances are explained with the past lives with examples of specific actions of particular intensity in one life determining events in the next. ^[14] Jain texts narrate how even lord Māhavīra had to bear the brunt of his previous karmas before attaining enlightenment. He could attain Kevala Jñāna only after 12 years of leading a life of severe austerity, equanimity and detachment.^[15] Ācāranga Sūtra speaks of how Māhavīra bore his karmas with complete equaminity:

He was stuck with a stick, the fist, a lance, hit with a fruit, a clod, a potsherd. Beating him again and again many cried. When he once sat without moving his body, many cut his flesh, tore his hair under pain, or covered him with dust. Throwing him up they let him fall, or disturbed him in his religious postures; abandoning the care of his body, the Venerable One humbled himself and bore pain, free from desire. As a hero at the head of the battle is surrounded by all sides, so was there Māhavīra. Bearing all hardships, the Venerable One, undisturbed, proceeded on the road to nirvāṇa.^[16]

—Ācāranga Sūtra, 8–356:60

[edit] Reincarnation and transmigration

Karma forms a central and fundamental part of Jain faith and is intricately connected to other philosophical concepts like transmigration, reincarnation, liberation, ahimsa, and non-attachment to name a few. As all actions have consequences, some immediate, some delayed and others in future incarnations, the doctrine of karma should not be considered simply in relation to one life time, but also with relation to the future reincarnations as well as past lives. ^[17] Uttarādhyayana-sūtra 3.3–4 states: "The jīva or the soul is sometimes born in devloka (the world of gods), sometimes in hell. Sometimes it acquires body of asura, all this happens on account of karmas. This jīva sometimes takes birth as a worm, as an insect as an ant." ^[18] The text further states 32.7: "Karma is the root of birth and death. The souls bound by karma go round and round in the cycle of existence." ^[18] The actions and emotions in current lifetime, effect the future reincarnations depending on the nature of karmas. For example, a good and virtuous life indicates a latent desire to experience good and virtuous themes of life. Therefore, such person attracts karmas that ensure that his future births allow him to experience and manifest his virtues and good feelings unhindered. ^[19] In this case, he may take birth in heaven or in a prosperous and virtuous human family. A person who has indulged in immoral deeds with a cruel disposition indicates a latent desire to experience cruel themes of life. ^[20]As a natural consequence, he will attract karmas which will ensure that he is reincarnated in hell or in low life forms to enable his soul to experience the cruel themes of life. ^[20] There is no retribution, judgment or reward involved but a natural consequences of the choices in life made either knowingly or unknowingly. ^[21] Hence, whatever suffering or pleasure that a soul may be experiencing in its present life is on account of choices that it has made in the past. ^[22]That is why Jainism attributes supreme importance to pure thinking and moral behavior. ^[23] Apart from Buddhism, Jainism may be the only religion that does not invoke the fear of God as a reason for moral behavior. ^[24]

[edit] Four States of existence

The Jain texts postulates four gatis, that is, states of existence or birth categories, within which the soul transmigrates: deva (demi-gods), manuṣya (humans), nāraki (Hell beings) and tiryañca (animals, plants and micro-organisms). ^[25] These four gatis have four corresponding realms or habitation level in a vertically tiered Jaina universe. Demi-gods occupy the higher levels where heavens are situated, humans, plants and animals occupy the middle levels and Hellish beings occupy lower levels where the seven hells are situated. ^[26] Single sensed souls like nigoda and element bodied souls pervade the entire universe. Nigodas are souls at the bottom of this existential hierarchy. They are so tiny and undifferentiated, that they lack even individual bodies, living in colonies and pervading the entire universe. According to Jain texts, these infinite nigodas are also found in the plant tissues, root vegetables and animal bodies.^[27] Thus depending on its karmas, a soul transmigrates and reincarnates in these destinies. In Jainism, where god has no role to play in ones destiny, these destinies are not seen as a consequence of any rewards or punishment system. Each soul is thus responsible for its own predicament, as well as, its own salvation. The accumulated karmas represent a sum total of all unfulfilled desires, attachments and aspirations of a soul.^{[28] [29]} They enable the soul to experience the various themes of the lives that it desires to experience. ^[28] Hence a soul may transmigrate from one life form to another for countless of years, taking with it the karmas that it has earned, until it finds conditions that bring about the fruits. Heavens and hells are often viewed as places for eternal salvation or eternal damnation for good and bad deeds. But according to Jainism such places, including earth, are simply the places which allow the soul to experience its unfulfilled karmas. ^[30]

[edit] Lesya – colouring of the soul

According to the Jain theory of karma, the karmic matter imparts a colour (leśyā) to the (soul) jīva depending on the mental activities behind an action.^[31] The coloring of the soul is explained through the analogy of crystal, that acquires the color of the matter associated with in. In the same way, the soul reflects the qualities of colour, taste, smell and touch of associated karmic matter, although it is usually the colour that is referred to when discussing the leśyās. ^[32] Uttarādhyayana-sūtra speaks of six main categories of leśyā represented by six colours – black, blue, grey, yellow, red and white. ^[33] The black, blue and grey are inauspicious leśyā due to which the soul takes birth in various-unhappy states of existence. The yellow, red and white are the auspicious leśyās that enable a soul to take birth in various happy states of existence.^[34] Uttarādhyayana-sūtra describes the mental disposition of persons having balck and white leśyās:

A man who acts on the impulse of the five sins, does not possess the three guptis, has not ceased to injure the six (kinds of living beings), commits cruel acts, is wicked and violent, is afraid of no consequences, is mischievous and does not subdue his senses – a man of such habits develops the black leśyā.

— Uttarādhyayana-sūtra, 34.21:22

A man who abstains from constant thinking about his misery and about sinful deeds, but engages in meditation on the law and truth only, whose mind is at ease, who controls himself, who practises the samitis and guptis, whether he be still subject to passion or free from passion, is calm, and subdues his senses–a man of such habits develops the white leśyā.

— Uttarādhyayana-sūtra, 34.31:32

The Jain texts further describe the mental dispositions of a soul on account of leśyās with an example of the reactions of six persons who are travellers on seeing a fruit-bearing tree. They see a tree laden with fruits and begin to think of getting those fruits: one of them suggests uprooting the entire tree and eating the fruits; the second one suggests cutting the trunk of the tree; the third one suggests cutting the branches only; the fourth one suggests cutting the twigs; the fifth one suggests plucking the fruits only; the sixth one suggests picking up only the fruits that have fallen down. The thoughts, words and bodily activities of each of these six travellers are different based on their mental dispositions and are respectively illustrative of the six leśyās. The person with the black leśyā, having evil disposition, thinks of uprooting the whole tree even though he wants to eat only one fruit. On the other hand, the person with the white leśyā, having pure disposition, thinks of picking up fruits fallen on the ground sparing the tree. ^[35]

[edit] Origins and Differences with other philosophies

[edit] Origins

While the doctrine of karma is central to all religions originating in India, it is difficult to say when and where the concept of karma originated in India. The doctrine of Karma does not appear in the Rigveda and became a part of Hinduism only during 500–200 B.C.E.^[36]

With regards to its origins, Dr. Padmanabh Jaini observes, "Perhaps the entire concept that a person's situation and experiences are in fact the results of deeds committed in various lives may not be Aryan origin at all, but rather may have developed as a part of the indigenous Gangetic traditions from which the various shramana movements arose. In any case we shall see, Jaina views on the process and possibilities of rebirth are distinctly non-Hindu; the social ramifications of these views, moreover, have been profound." ^[37]

According to Dr. H. V. Glasenapp, of the conception of karmic theory, the most realistic of all that have had their origin in India is that of the Jains^[38]. The fundamental idea that the soul, pure in itself, is polluted through its actions and must be freed from its stain in order to regain its natural state is an idea which is also found in other religions, but which, while it has remained with them as an allegorical expression, has been adopted by the Jains in the real sense of the word. Others disagree with this opinion for various reasons.

Dr. T. G. Kalghatgi^[39] observes that karma doctrine must have been a pre-Aryan doctrine which was developed by the shramana culture and later assimilated and developed in the Brahminic thought by time of Upanishads. Ninian Smart also observes, "The Indian view of the karma is doubtless of pre-Aryan prominence and it was a kind of a natural law."^[40]

[edit] Differences with other philosophies

With regards to differences with other philosophies, Dr. Padmanabh Jaini states:

...this emphasis on reaping the fruits only of one's own karma was not restricted to the Jainas; both Hindus and Buddhist writers have produced doctrinal materials stressing the same point. Each of the latter traditions, however, developed practices in basic contradiction to such belief. In addition to sradhha (the ritual Hindu offerings by the son of deceased), we find among Hindus widespread adherence to the notion of divine intervention in one's fate, while Mahayana Buddhists eventually came to propound such theories like boon-granting bodhisattvas, transfer of merit and like (Theravada Buddhist views however are more like the Jain). Only Jainas have been absolutely unwilling to allow such ideas to penetrate their community, despite the fact that there must have been tremendous amount of social pressure on them to do so.^[37]

Remaining true to the karma philosophy, the attempts to dilute the theory of karma by Hindu and Buddhist philosophies by introducing the concepts of divine will, transfer of karmas through food, and inheritance of karmas were strongly resisted by Jains.

This had wide social consequences in the beliefs and practices of Jains. Besides rejecting various Vedic rituals and beliefs, it further fortified the Jaina belief in Ahimsa (non-violence), Aparigraha (non-possession) and Anekantvada (multiplicity of view points)

[edit] The process of bondage and release

The karmic process in Jainism is based on seven truths or fundamental principles (tattva) of Jainism which explain the human predicament. ^[41] Out that the seven, the four — influx (āsrava), bondage (bandha) , stoppage (saṃvara) and release (nirjarā) — pertain to the karmic process. ^[42]

[edit] Influx

The āsrava, that is, the influx of karmic occurs when the karmic particles are attracted to the soul on account of vibrations created by activities of mind, speech and body.^[5] Tattvārthasūtra , 6:1–2 states:^[43] "The activities of body, speech and mind is called yoga. This three-fold action results in āsrava or influx of karma." ^[44] The karmic inflow on account of yoga driven by passions and emotions cause a long term inflow of karma prolonging the cycle of reincarnations. On the other hand, the karmic inflows on account of actions that are not driven by passions and emotions have only a transient, short-lived karmic effect. ^{[45] [46]}

[edit] Attraction of Karma

The karmas are attracted to the consciousness by combination of the following factors pertaining to action — instrumentality, process , modality and motivation ^[47] Thus, the karmas are attracted and bound on account of combination any element of the following four factors:

1. the instrumentality of the actions, that is, either through:

• body – physical action,
• speech – verbal action, or
• mind – mental action

1. the process of action which consists of:

• decision or plan to act,
• making preparations for the act, like, collecting necessary materials, or
• actually beginning of the action

1. the modality of action, that consists of:

• the act carried out by self, or
• instigating someone else to carry out the act, or
• giving approval or endorsing the act.

1. the motivation for action. This includes any of the following negative emotions that motivates the action:

• Anger
• Greed
• Pride
• Manipulation or deceit

With a combination of any of the elements of the above four factors, there are 108 ways with which the karmas can be attracted to the soul. Even a silent assent or endorsements of acts of violence done by someone else far away, have karmic consequences for the soul. Hence, the scriptures advice carefulness in actions, awareness of the world, and purity in actions as a means to avoid the karmas.

[edit] Bondage

The karmas have effect only when they are bound to the consciousness. This binding of the karma to the consciousness is called bandha.^[48] However, the yoga or the activities alone do not produce bondage. Out of the many causes of bondage, passion is considered as the main cause of bondage. The karmas are literally bound on account of the stickiness of the soul due to existence of various passions or mental dispositions.^[5] The passions like anger, pride, deceit and greed are called sticky (kasayas) because they act like glue in making karmic particles stick to the soul resulting in bandha. ^[49] Hence the ancient Jain texts talk of subduing these negative emotions:^[50]

When he wishes that which is good for him, he should get rid of the four fault—anger, pride, deceit and greed—which increase the evil. Anger and pride when not suppressed, and deceit and greed when arising: all these four black passions water the roots of re-birth.

—Daśavaikālika sūtra, 8:36–39

[edit] Causes of bondage

According to Tattvārthasūtra, the causes of karmic bondage, in the order they are required to be eliminate by a soul for spiritual progress, are:

• Mithyātva (Irrationality and a deluded world view) – The deluded world view is the misunderstanding as to how this world really functions on account of one-sided perspectives, perverse viewpoints, irrational scepticism, pointless generalisations and ignorance. ^[51]
• Avirati (non-restraint or a vowless life) – The second cause of bondage, avirati is the inability to refrain voluntarily from the evil actions, that harms oneself and others. ^[52] The state of avirati can only be overcome by observing the minor vows of a layman.
• Pramāda (carelessness and laxity of conduct) – This third cause of bondage consists of absentmindedness, lack of enthusiasm towards acquiring merit and spiritual growth, and improper actions of mind, body and speech without any regard to oneself or others. ^[53]
• Kaṣāya (passions or negative emotions) ¬– The four passions — anger, pride, deceit and greed — are the primary reason for the attachment of the karmas to the soul. They keep the soul immersed in the darkness of delusion leading to deluded conduct and unending cycles of reincarnations. ^[54]
• Yoga activities of mind, speech and body ¬– The threefold activities of mind, body and speech attract and bind the karmas when such actions are influenced by passions.

Each cause presupposes the existence of the next cause, but the next cause does not necessarily pre-suppose the existence of the previous cause. ^[55]> A soul is able to advances on the spiritual ladder called guṇasthāna, only when it is able to eliminate the above causes of bondage one by one.

[edit] Experiencing the effects of the karmas

The nature of experience of the effects of the karma depends on the following four factors:^[47]

• Prikriti - The nature or type of karma.
• Stithi - The duration of the karmic bond. The karmic bond remains latent and bounded to the consciousness up to the time it is not activated. Although latent karma does not affect the soul directly, its existence limits the spiritual growth of the soul.
• Anubhava – Intensity of karmas. The intensity of the karmas depends on the intensity of the passions at the time of binding the karmas. It determines the power of karmas and its effect on the soul.
• Pradesha – The quantity of the karmic matter that gets activated.

Duration, intensity and quantity are determined by the intensity of the emotional engagement at the time of binding of karmas. The type or nature of the karmas bound depends on the nature of the activity that bound the karma in first place. ^[56]

[edit] How the karmas bear results

The consequences of karma are inevitable. The consequences may take some time to take effect but the karma is never fruitless. To explain this, a Jain monk, Ratnaprabhacharya says: "The prosperity of a vicious man and misery of a virtuous man are respectively but the effects of good deeds and bad deeds done previously. The vice and virtue may have their effects in their next lives. In this way the law of causality is not infringed here."^[57]

The latent karma becomes active and bears fruit when the supportive conditions arise.^[47] A great part of attracted karma bears its consequences with minor fleeting effects, as generally most of our activities are influenced by mild negative emotions. However, those actions that are influenced by intense negative emotions cause an equally strong karmic attachment which usually does not bear fruit immediately. It takes on an inactive state and waits for the supportive conditions—like proper time, place, and environment—to arise for it to manifest and produce effects. ^[58]If the supportive conditions do not arise, the respective karmas will manifest at the end of maximum period for which it can remain bound to the soul. There are certain laws of precedent among the karmas, according to which the fruition of some of the karmas may be deferred but not absolutely barred. ^[59]

[edit] Modifications of karma

While the Jains hold the karmic consequences as inevitable, Jain texts also hold that it is possible to transform and modify the effects of the karmas. The following are the states and transformation of karmas as described in Panca Samgrah by 9th Century Jain Acharya Chandrsi Mahattar^[60]:

1. Udaya – Udaya is the fruition of karmas as per its nature in the due course.
2. Udirana - 'Udirana is the premature operation of karmas, such as, when certain karmas become operative before their predetermined time. When certain karma is already operative, a similar type of karma can also be made operative.
3. Utkarsana - augmentation, or subsequent increase in duration and intensity of the karmas due to additional negative emotions and feelings.
4. Apkarsana - diminution, or subsequent decrease in duration and intensity of the karmas due to positive emotions and feelings.
5. Sankramana - mutation, or conversion of one sub-type of karmas into another sub-type. Mutation does not occur between types. For example, pap (bad karma) can be converted into punya (good karma), both being of same sub-type.
6. Upasamana - state of subsidence. During this state the operation of karma does not occur. The karma becomes operative only when the duration of subsidence ceases.
7. Nidhatti - prevention, or state where premature operation and mutation is not possible but augmentation and diminution is possible.
8. Nikaachana - invariance. For some sub-types, no transformation or modifications are possible, the consequences are the same as were established at the time of bonding.

It is evident that according to Jain karma theory, our thoughts and feelings are quite important, not only at the time of binding the karmas, but also for its operation and modifications.

[edit] Release from karmas

Once attached to the karmic field, the karmas drop off only after they bear the necessary fruits or results for the soul (Udaya). It is possible to stop the influx of karmas (samvara) as well as shed the karmas (nirjara) by maintaining equanimity and detachment and by practicing penance and repentance for various deeds.^[61] This leads to liberation and this is the basis of Jain philosophy. According to Jainism, the influx, bondage, stoppage, and shedding of karmas and salvation are solely functions of the soul. Unlike in Hinduism, God has no role to play in Jainism as a dispenser of karmas.

According to Jainism, karmic consequences are unerringly certain and inescapable. No divine grace can save a person from experiencing its consequences. Only practice of complete equanimity and detachment and practice of austerities can modify or alleviate the consequences of the karmas. In some cases there is no option but to accept the karmas with equanimity. Some Jain stories show how even Mahavira had to bear the brunt of his previous karmas before attaining enlightenment.

[edit] Types of Karmas

There are eight types of karmas, categorized into four ghatiya and four aghatiya karmas.^[47]

[edit] Ghatiya karmas

These directly affect the attributes of the soul. These are:

1. Knowledge-obscuring karma (Jnanavarniya karma) – These karmas obscure the knowledge attribute of the soul.
2. Perception-obscuring karma (Darshanavarniya karma) – These karmas diminish the powers of Perception of a soul.
3. Deluding karma (Mohaniya karma) - These karmas are an instrumental cause of destruction the soul's right belief and right conduct. Of all karmas, deluding karma is the most difficult to overcome. Once this is eradicated, liberation is ensured.
4. Obstructing karma (Antaraya karma) - The fruition of these karmas creates obstructions to giving donations, obtaining gains, and enjoying things.

When Ghatiya karmas are totally destroyed, the soul attains kevaljnana or omniscience. Liberation is guaranteed for such souls in the same lifetime as soon it burns off the Aghatiya karmas also.

[edit] Aghatiya karmas

These do not affect the soul directly; rather, they have an effect on the body that houses the soul. These are:

1. Lifespan-determining karma (Ayu karma) – These karmas determine the subsequent states of existence and lifespan therein after death. The soul gets locked either into subhuman (Tiryanch), infernal (Naraki), human (Manushya), or celestial (Dev) bodies for its next birth.
2. Body-determining karma (Nama karma) – These karmas determine the type of body occupied by the soul.
3. Status-determining karma (Gotra karma) - The fruition of these karmas gives one high status or low status in society.
4. Feeling-producing karma (Vedaniya karma) - These karmas become an instrumental cause of the interruption of the soul's uninterrupted happiness (Avyabadh sukha). As a result of this, the soul remains agitated.

As soon as the soul releases Aghatiya karmas, it attains moksha or liberation.

Each of these types has various sub-types. The Tattvartha Sutra generally speaks of 148 types and sub-types of karmas.

[edit] Duration of Karmas

The maximum duration of attachment of karma is 70 kotakoti^[62] sagaropama^[63] and minimum time is less than one muharta^[64].The maximum and minimum time for which the karmas remain bound to our consciousness depends on the type of karma which is as follows :-

Type of Karma	Maximum duration	Minimum duration
Jnanvarniya Karma	30 Kotakoti Sagaropama (3000 trillion sagaropama years)	<1muhurta (less than 48 minutes)
Darsanavarniya Karma	30 Kotakoti Sagaropama (3000 trillion sagaropama years)	<1muhurta (less than 48 minutes)
Mohaniya Karma	70 Kotakoti Sagaropama (7000 trillion sagaropama years)	<1muhurta (less than 48 minutes)
Antraya Karma	30 Kotakoti Sagaropama (3000 trillion sagaropama years)	<1muhurta (less than 48 minutes)
Ayu Karma	33 Sagaropama (33 sagaropama years)	<1muhurta (less than 48 minutes)
Nama Karma	20 Kotakoti Sagaropama (2000 trillion sagaropama years)	8 Muhurta (6 hrs and 24 min)
Gotra Karma	20 Kotakoti Sagaropama (2000 trillion sagaropama years)	8 Muhurta (6 hrs and 24 min)
Vedniya Karma	30 Kotakoti Sagaropama (3000 trillion sagaropama years)	12 Muhurta (9 hrs and 36 min)

[edit] Rationale of karma theory and human inequalities

Jains cite inequalities, sufferings, and pain as evidence for the existence of Karma. The theory of karma is able to explain day-to-day observable phenomena such as inequality between the rich and the poor, luck, differences in lifespan, and the ability to enjoy life despite being immoral. Sūtrakṛtāṅga , one of the oldest canon of Jainism, states:^[65]

Here in the East, West, North, and South many men have been born according to their merit, as inhabitants of this our world, viz. some as Âryas, some as non-Âryas, some in noble families, some in low families, some as big men, some as small men, some of good complexion, some of bad complexion, some as handsome men, some as ugly men. And of these men one man is king.

— Sūtrakṛtāṅga, 2.1.13

Jayantilal Sanghavi, the author of “A treatise on Jainism” seeks to provide an evidence of the karma theory from the day to day observances:^[66]:

One is stout while another is lean; one is a master while another is a slave and similarly we find the high and the low, the mutilated and the lame, the blind and the deaf and many such oddities. [..]

The thrones of mighty monarchs are gone. The proud and the haughty have been humiliated in a moment and reduced to ashes. Even amongst the twins born of the same mother, we find one a dullard and another intelligent, one rich and another poor, one black and another white. What is all this due to? They could not have done any deeds while they were in their mother’s womb. Then, why then should such oddities exist? We have then to infer that these disparities must be the result of their deeds in their past births though they are born together at one time.

There are many oddities in this world and it will have to be admitted that behind all this some powerful force is at work whereby the world appears to be full of oddities. This force is called ‘Karma’. We are unable to perceive Karma by our naked eyes, yet we are able to know it from its actions.

[edit] Scientific interpretation of karma

Jain philosopher-monks postulated the existence of karma as subtle and microscopic particles that cannot be perceived by senses, some two millennia before modern science proved the existence of atoms and subatomic particles. However, these and other elementary particles that have been either discovered or postulated cannot be equated with karmic particles. Some authors have sought to explain the concept of karmic particles in the context of modern science and physics. Hermann Kuhn, Hermann points out that, although the idea of "karmic particles" is not yet proven, we only need to recall that science found proof of the existence of molecules and atoms only the 19th and 20th century.^[67] Anyone who would have suggested that these "indivisible" particles were made up of even subtler units like quarks and leptons only a hundred years ago may have been dismissed, though such theories were in existence. With regards to interaction of consciousness and karmic matter, he further states that, it can be easily understood considering that ideas like the mind fundamentally affecting matter are now accepted in scientific circles. ^[67] While admitting that though science has not discovered karmic matter yet, he is of opinion that it does not state anything against its existence. ^[67] K. V. Mardia, in his book The Scientific Foundations of Jainism, has interpreted karma in terms of modern physics, suggesting that the particles are made of karmons, dynamic high energy particles which permeate the universe.^[68] However, most scientists do not consider karma and reincarnation to be within the bounds of science, as it is neither a testable nor a falsifiable theory. ^[69]

[edit] Criticism of karma theory

The Jain theory of Karma has been debated and criticized by various ancient philosophies like the Vedics, Buddhists, Samkhyas, and in recent times, Christian missionaries.

The adamant position of the Jains on the supremacy and potency of the karmas and non-intervention by any supreme being on the fate of souls led the Vedics to label Jainism as "nastika" or atheistic.

Similar reasons led Mrs. Sinclair Stevenson, an Irish missionary, to declare that "the heart of Jainism is empty". While making a fervent appeal to accept Christianity, she says that Jains strongly believe in duty of forgiving others, and yet have no hope of forgiveness by a higher power for them.^[70]

A strong emphasis on the doctrine of karma and intense asceticism was also criticised by the Buddhists, even though they also believe in karma. The ancient Buddhist scripture of Samyutta Nikāya narrates the story of Asibandhakaputta, a headman who was originally a disciple of Mahavira.^[71] In the ensuing debate with the Buddha, Asibandhakaputta tells him that, according to Nigantha Nataputta (Mahavira), a man's fate or karma is decided by what he does habitually. The Buddha points out the absurdity of this view by stating that a sinner spends more time "not doing the sin" and only some time is spent in actually "doing the sin." In another Buddhist text Majjhima Nikaya, Buddha criticizes the Jain emphasis on destruction of some unobservable and unverifiable karmas as a means to end suffering rather than eliminate evil mental states such as greed, hatred and delusion, which are observable and verifiable.^[72] The Buddha also rejected the Jain theory of the present events and experiences on account of previous karmas as unreasonable. According to him many things are the result of our own deeds done in this present life rather than previous lives and also of external causes other than karmas.

While admitting the complexity and sophistication of the Jain doctrine, Padmanabh Jaini compares it with that of Hindu doctrine of rebirth and points out that the Jain seers are silent on the exact moment and mode of rebirth, that is, the re-entry of soul in womb after the death.^[73] The concept of nitya-nigoda, which states that there are certain categories of souls who have always been nigodas, is also criticized. According to Jainism, nigodas are lowest form of extremely microscopic beings having a momentary life spans, living in colonies and pervading the entire universe. According to Dr. Jaini, the entire concept of nitya-nigoda undermines the concept of karma, as these beings clearly would not have had prior opportunity to perform any karmically meaningful actions.^[74]

Karma is said to lead to the dampening of spirits with men suffering the ills of life with helpless equanimity of attitude because the course of one's life is determined by karma.^[75] Thus the impression of karma as the accumulation of a mountain of bad deeds looming over our heads without any recourse leads to fatalism.^[76] However, as Paul Dundas puts it, the Jain theory of karma is undoubtedly much more elaborately thought out and systematic than its equivalent in Hinduism or Buddhism, but this does not imply lack of free will or operation of total deterministic control over destinies.^[77]

[edit] References and notes

[edit] Bibliography

• Duli Chandra Jain (ed.) (1997). Studies in Jainism: Reader 2. New York: Jain Study Circle Inc.. ISBN 0-9626105-2-6. 

• Dundas, Paul; John Hinnels ed. (2002). The Jains. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-26606-8. 

• Glasenapp, Helmuth Von (2003) [1942] (in English. Trans. From German by G. Barry Gifford). The Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy. Fremont, CA: Jain Pub Co. ISBN 0895819716. 

• Hari Satya Bhattacharya

• Jaini, Padmanabh (2000). Collected Papers on Jaina Studies. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publ.. ISBN 81-208-1691-9. 

• Kalghatgi, Dr. T. G. (1988). Study of Jainism. Jaipur: Prakrit Bharti Academy. 

• Kuhn, Hermann (2001). Karma, The Mechanism : Create Your Own Fate. Wunstorf, Germany: Crosswind Publishing. ISBN 3-9806211-4-6. 

• Michaels, Axel (2004). Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0691089531. 

• Patil, Bal (2006). Jaya Gommatesa. Mumbai: Hindi Granth Karyalaya. ISBN 81-88769-10-X. 

• Shah, Natubhai (1998). Jainism: The World of Conquerors. Volume I and II. Sussex: Sussex Academy Press. ISBN 1898723303. 

• Smart, Ninian (1964). Doctrine and Argument in Indian Philosophy. London: George Allen & Unwin. 

• Stevenson, M.Sinclair (1999). Heart of Jainism. Munshiram Manoharial Publishers Private, Limited. ISBN 8121501229. 

• Zydenbos, Robert J. (2006). Jainism Today and Its Future. München: Manya Verlag. http://www.manyaverlag.de/jtaif.html. 

• Sanghavi, Jayantilal (2005). "A treatise on Jainism". in (ed.) Marilynn Hughes. The Voice of the Prophets: Wisdom of the Ages. Volume 2 of 12. Morrisville, North Carolina: Lulu.com. pp. 587–662. ISBN 1411651219. http://books.google.co.in/books?id=BG-CBk4vyccC&dq=The+Voice+of+the+Prophets,+jainism&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0. 

[edit] Further reading

[edit] Ancient Jain Texts

1. Tattvartha Sutra, Chapter VI, VIII and IX, Acharya Umasvati
2. The Karmagranthas, Six Volumes, Devendrasuri
3. The Pancasamgraha, Candrarsi Candramahattara
4. The Karmaprakti, Sivasarmasuri
5. Satkhandagama, Six Volumes, Acharya Pushpadanta and Bhutabali
6. Kasayaprabhrta, Acharya Gunabhadra

[edit] Other Reference material

1. Dr. H. V. Glasenapp, Doctrine of Karman in Jain Philosophy
2. Karma, the Mechanism – Hermann Kuhn
3. Jain World
4. Jaina Path to Purification – Dr. Padmanabh Jaini
5. Collected Papers on Jaina Studies, Ch. VII Karma and problem of re-birth – Dr. Padmanabh Jaini